50. Robinson, J. L., Zahn-Waxler, C., & Emde R. N. (1994). Patterns of development in early empathic behavior: Environmental and child constitutional influences. Social Development, 3, 125-145.

The second year of life is a period of developmental change and instability in empathic expressions. In this study, we identify specific developmental patterns of global empathy during the second year and investigate maternal style, parent reports of family environment, and temperamental factors as moderator influences on these patterns of development. Comparisons within specific groups of 158 pairs (initially high, mid-range, or low empathy) tested the differences between children who changed versus those who remained stable. All three variables significantly differentiated children among different patterns of development. For example, children whose parents reported greater family closeness and expressiveness were more likely to maintain high levels of empathy from 14 to 20 months. Sex of the child was an additional moderator of family influences on development among those children whose empathic responses were initially low. Specifically, females were more likely to show marked increases in empathy when mothers reported greater family closeness. These findings suggest the importance of distinguishing patterns of development based on where in the range of behaviors development is tracked.