55. Zahn-Waxler, C., & Robinson, J. (1995). Empathy and guilt: Early origins of feelings of responsibility. In K. Fischer & J. Tangey (Eds.), Self-Conscious Emotions: Shame, Guilt, Embarrassment and Pride (pp 143-173). New York: Guilford.

In this chapter the authors examine the early development of guilt and empathy as reflections of more broadly based feeling of responsibility for others. Data from several studies are considered, including the MacArthur Longitudinal Twin Study. Findings highlight normative increases in both emotions during the second and third years of life, individual differences in patterns of responsibility, and genetic and environmental sources of individual differences. Guilt was considered related to fear and sadness at 14, 20, and 24 months of age based on a parent report measure of discrete emotions. Empathy and guilt had significant heritable influences at 14 months but not at later ages. Common environment was a significant factor for guilt at 14, 20, and 24 months. These findings are discussed in light of their theoretical importance for early moral development.